Explain how Descartes represents a new philosophical beginning Essay

Explain how Descartes represents a new philosophical beginning - Essay Example In mathematics, we encounter absolute certainty, according to Descartes.† (Kitcher, 2006, p. 482) His search for this absolute certainty in the field of philosophy begins with a radical rejection of all beliefs, perceptions and assumptions and a completely blank page on which he attempts to build up a new logical train of thought. This paper considers the steps that Descartes takes to distance himself from traditional ways of thinking and the nature of his radical new approach. The starting point that Descartes chooses is in keeping with the religious conventions of the time, since he addresses his work to â€Å"those Most Wise and Distinguished men, the Deans and Doctors of the Faculty of Sacred Theology of Paris† (Descartes, p. 484) and he quotes the Bible and the Lateran Council of 1512-1517 to show that he is familiar with matters of the faith. His use of radical scepticism is presented as different approach to both physical and metaphysical problems and he implies t hat his intention is to follow a path of discovery which will be different from, but not contradictory to, articles of faith which are taught by the established Christian Church. Since the turn of the seventeenth century the Medieval mind-set of the Church had been badly shaken, first by the reformation and consequent debates and schisms across Europe, and secondly by a whole host of scientific discoveries that raised interesting questions about man’s place in the universe. Nowadays we call this major shift in world view â€Å"the Enlightenment.† In the first section of his treatise Descartes applies his radical scepticism to religion and science alike, suspending all that he has been taught, and coming down to the fundamental observation that the human being is made of two separate substances: the mind, which is immaterial and capable of thinking, and the body, which is corporal and capable of using the physical senses to apprehend and interact with the world. He cons iders how unreliable the senses are, and concludes that the only thing that he is absolutely certain of, is the fact that he is thinking with his mind. Body, senses and everything else are laid to one side and he concentrates on this thinking part of himself. In the second section he formulates his most famous saying â€Å"cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am† (Descartes, p. 492) which shows that existence is derived from thinking, and not from anything outside the self that is thinking. This is a big departure from the teachings of the Church, which had traditionally placed itself in the role of teacher and authority on all matters. Thanks to the reformation there was a much greater focus on the individual, and Descartes latches on to this to stress both the mental activity that human beings are capable of, but also the fact that we are self-aware when we are engaged in this activity. All that exists around that thinking self is an illusion, and the only absolutely certa in thing is the individual and his ability to understand and to reason. The third section elaborates this point: â€Å"I am a thing that thinks, that is to say a thing that doubts, affirms, denies, understands a few things, is ignorant of many things, refrains from willing, and also imagines and senses.†

Public Management and Administration Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Public Management and Administration - Case Study Example Government by proxy has grown into a more diverse, pervasive, and an all-encompassing phenomenon that is here to stay. It is imperative that public administration scholars and policy makers offer proposals to reduce or eliminate the problems created by third party government and in turn improve government performance. Government needs partners to do its job. These partners present themselves in the form of for profit and non-profit organizations as well as state and local agencies. From the case study ‘should private contractors be guarding public buildings?’, it is stated that the Federal Protective security- FPS employs 1225 persons who are responsible for 2360 federal facilities. This shows a clear gap that gets filled by the government through proxy. By contacting out to fill the security gap required for public buildings, the FPS turns from a direct service provider to a generator of public value. It is vital that all federal building become well-guarded to protect national interests and property which gets funded by taxpayers’ money. If the government is unable to employ and train the required number of security guards required to man this buildings, contracting out seems a viable option. Government by proxy offers innovation and the ability of the contracted firms to tailor their services to meet customer demands. Contracted security firms get to train their guards on the requirements and challenges posed by the job contracted. These private security firms dedicate their time and capital into offering the ultimate service for their customer as they are in competition with other firms too. From the given case study, the author states of a meeting with private security guard who told him that he was trained on twenty one different weapons. This indicates the training level to which private firms engage their guards in preparing them to meet with the rising threats of insecurity